CPP(1)

💖 CPP(1) — GNU 💖

okay bestie, gather round, because today we're talking about cpp, the C Preprocessor, and she is lowkey the backbone of your entire build. this is the GNU manual page, and i'm gonna walk you through every single bit of it, no cap, nothing skipped. 🫶

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✨ NAME ✨

cpp — The C Preprocessor 👑

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✨ SYNOPSIS ✨

cpp [-Dmacro[=defn]...] [-Umacro]
    [-Idir...] [-iquotedir...]
    [-M|-MM] [-MG] [-MF filename]
    [-MP] [-MQ target...]
    [-MT target...]
    infile [[-o] outfile]

okay so first things first, that list up there? that's just the most useful options, it's giving teaser trailer. there's a way more complete list of preprocessor-specific options further down this page, and also, cpp accepts most gcc driver options too — those aren't listed here, so if you need the deets on those, go check the GCC documentation. 📚

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✨ DESCRIPTION ✨

The C preprocessor, known to her friends as cpp, is a macro processor that the C compiler just… uses automatically to transform your program before compilation happens. ✨

and why is she called a macro processor, you ask? because she lets you define macros, which are basically little abbreviations for longer constructs. iconic behavior honestly. 💅

here's the tea though — cpp is meant to be used only with C, C++, and Objective-C source code. in the past, people abused her as a general text processor, and bestie, she will choke. she will straight-up error out on input that doesn't obey C's lexical rules. for example, apostrophes get read as the beginning of character constants, and boom, errors. 😭

also, you cannot rely on her preserving characteristics of the input that aren't significant to C-family languages. like, if you preprocess a Makefile? every single hard tab gets removed and the Makefile will not work. 💀 not the vibe.

that said, sometimes you can get away with running cpp on things that aren't C. other Algol-ish programming languages are often safe (Ada, etc.). assembly too — with caution. -traditional-cpp mode preserves more white space and is otherwise more permissive. and a lot of these problems can be dodged by writing C or C++ style comments instead of native language comments, and keeping your macros simple. 🎀

wherever possible, you should use a preprocessor that's actually geared to the language you're writing in. modern GNU assembler has macro facilities, most high level programming languages have their own conditional compilation and inclusion mechanism, and if all else fails, try a true general text processor like GNU M4. 🌸

C preprocessors vary in the details, and this manual is all about the GNU C preprocessor, which provides a small superset of the features of ISO Standard C. in her default mode, GNU CPP does not do a few things the standard requires — these are features that are rarely, if ever, used, and they may cause surprising changes to the meaning of a program that doesn't expect them. 😳

so if you want strict ISO Standard C, use the -std=c90, -std=c99, -std=c11 or -std=c17 options, depending on which version of the standard you want. and to get all the mandatory diagnostics, you also gotta use -pedantic. periodt. ⭐

this manual describes the behavior of the ISO preprocessor. to minimize gratuitous differences, where the ISO preprocessor's behavior doesn't conflict with traditional semantics, the traditional preprocessor should behave the same way. the various differences that do exist are detailed in the section Traditional Mode.

for clarity, unless noted otherwise, references to CPP in this manual refer to GNU CPP. 💜

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✨ OPTIONS ✨

the cpp command expects two file names as arguments: infile and outfile. the preprocessor reads infile together with any other files it specifies with #include, and all the output generated by the combined input files gets written to outfile. 🦋

either infile or outfile may be -, which as infile means read from standard input, and as outfile means write to standard output. if either file is omitted, it means the same as if - had been specified for that file. you can also use the -o outfile option to specify the output file. 🌈

unless otherwise noted, or the option ends in =, all options which take an argument may have that argument appear either immediately after the option, or with a space between option and argument: -Ifoo and -I foo have the same effect. no cap. ✨

many options have multi-letter names, and therefore multiple single-letter options may not be grouped: -dM is very different from -d -M. do not confuse them, bestie, they are not the same girl. 🙈

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• -D name, --define-macro=name, --define-macro name — Predefine name as a macro, with definition 1.
• -D name=definition, --define-macro=name=definition, --define-macro name=definition — The contents of definition are tokenized and processed as if they appeared during translation phase three in a #define directive. in particular, the definition is truncated by embedded newline characters. 📝

if you're invoking the preprocessor from a shell or shell-like program, you may need to use the shell's quoting syntax to protect characters such as spaces that have a meaning in the shell syntax.

if you wish to define a function-like macro on the command line, write its argument list with surrounding parentheses before the equals sign (if any). parentheses are meaningful to most shells, so you should quote the option. with sh and csh, -D'name(args...)=definition' works. 💅

-D and -U options are processed in the order they are given on the command line. all -imacros file and -include file options are processed after all -D and -U options. ⚠️

• -U name, --undefine-macro=name, --undefine-macro name — Cancel any previous definition of name, either built in or provided with a -D option. bye bye macro 🫶
• -include file, --include=file, --include file — Process file as if "#include "file"" appeared as the first line of the primary source file. however, the first directory searched for file is the preprocessor's working directory instead of the directory containing the main source file. if it's not found there, it's searched for in the remainder of the "#include "..."" search chain as normal.

if multiple -include options are given, the files are included in the order they appear on the command line. 🎀

• -imacros file, --imacros=file, --imacros file — Exactly like -include, except that any output produced by scanning file is thrown away. macros it defines remain defined. this lets you acquire all the macros from a header without also processing its declarations. chef's kiss 🤌

all files specified by -imacros are processed before all files specified by -include.

• -undef — Do not predefine any system-specific or GCC-specific macros. the standard predefined macros remain defined. ✨
• -pthread — Define additional macros required for using the POSIX threads library. you should use this option consistently for both compilation and linking. this option is supported on GNU/Linux targets, most other Unix derivatives, and also on x86 Cygwin and MinGW targets. 🧵
• -M, --dependencies — Instead of outputting the result of preprocessing, output a rule suitable for make describing the dependencies of the main source file. the preprocessor outputs one make rule containing the object file name for that source file, a colon, and the names of all the included files, including those coming from -include or -imacros command-line options. 🛠️

unless specified explicitly (with -MT or -MQ), the object file name consists of the name of the source file with any suffix replaced with object file suffix and with any leading directory parts removed. if there are many included files then the rule is split into several lines using \-newline. the rule has no commands.

this option does not suppress the preprocessor's debug output, such as -dM. to avoid mixing such debug output with the dependency rules you should explicitly specify the dependency output file with -MF, or use an environment variable like DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT. debug output is still sent to the regular output stream as normal.

passing -M to the driver implies -E, and suppresses warnings with an implicit -w. 😌

• -MM, --user-dependencies — Like -M but do not mention header files that are found in system header directories, nor header files that are included, directly or indirectly, from such a header.

this implies that the choice of angle brackets or double quotes in an #include directive does not in itself determine whether that header appears in -MM dependency output. 🎯

• -MF file — When used with -M or -MM, specifies a file to write the dependencies to. if no -MF switch is given, the preprocessor sends the rules to the same place it would send preprocessed output.

when used with the driver options -MD or -MMD, -MF overrides the default dependency output file.

if file is -, then the dependencies are written to stdout. 💾

• -MG, --print-missing-file-dependencies — In conjunction with an option such as -M requesting dependency generation, -MG assumes missing header files are generated files and adds them to the dependency list without raising an error. the dependency filename is taken directly from the "#include" directive without prepending any path. -MG also suppresses preprocessed output, as a missing header file renders this useless. 🫠

this feature is used in automatic updating of makefiles.

• -Mno-modules — Disable dependency generation for compiled module interfaces. 🚫
• -MP — This option instructs CPP to add a phony target for each dependency other than the main file, causing each to depend on nothing. these dummy rules work around errors make gives if you remove header files without updating the Makefile to match. 💀

this is typical output:

test.o: test.c test.h

test.h:

• -MT target — Change the target of the rule emitted by dependency generation. by default CPP takes the name of the main input file, deletes any directory components and any file suffix such as .c, and appends the platform's usual object suffix. the result is the target.

an -MT option sets the target to be exactly the string you specify. if you want multiple targets, you can specify them as a single argument to -MT, or use multiple -MT options. 🎯

for example, -MT '$(objpfx)foo.o' might give

$(objpfx)foo.o: foo.c

• -MQ target — Same as -MT, but it quotes any characters which are special to Make. -MQ '$(objpfx)foo.o' gives

$$(objpfx)foo.o: foo.c

the default target is automatically quoted, as if it were given with -MQ. ✨

• -MD, --write-dependencies — okay so this one is basically -M -MF file but with one iconic plot twist: -E is not implied bestie. The driver picks the file based on whether you handed it an -o. If you did, it uses that argument but slaps a .d suffix on it. If you didn't, it grabs the input file's name, yeets any directory components and suffix, and applies a .d suffix. If -MD shows up next to -E, every -o switch is understood to be the dependency output file — but if you use it without -E, each -o is understood to be a target object file. And because -E isn't implied, -MD can be used to generate a dependency output file as a side effect of the compilation process. 💅
• -MMD, --write-user-dependencies — like -MD except it only mentions user header files, not system header files. the way it's giving "I only care about your code" energy 🎀
• -fpreprocessed — tells the preprocessor that the input file has already been preprocessed. This suppresses things like macro expansion, trigraph conversion, escaped newline splicing, and processing of most directives. The preprocessor still recognizes and removes comments, so you can pass a file preprocessed with -C to the compiler without problems. In this mode the integrated preprocessor is little more than a tokenizer for the front ends. -fpreprocessed is implicit if the input file has one of the extensions .i, .ii or .mi. These are the extensions that GCC uses for preprocessed files created by -save-temps. 🦋
• -fdirectives-only — when preprocessing, handle directives, but do not expand macros. Its whole vibe depends on the -E and -fpreprocessed options, so let's break it down:
  • With -E, preprocessing is limited to the handling of directives such as "#define", "#ifdef", and "#error". Other preprocessor operations, such as macro expansion and trigraph conversion are not performed. In addition, the -dD option is implicitly enabled. ✨
  • With -fpreprocessed, predefinition of command line and most builtin macros is disabled. Macros such as "__LINE__", which are contextually dependent, are handled normally. This enables compilation of files previously preprocessed with "-E -fdirectives-only".
  • With both -E and -fpreprocessed, the rules for -fpreprocessed take precedence. This enables full preprocessing of files previously preprocessed with "-E -fdirectives-only".
• -fdollars-in-identifiers — accept $ in identifiers. yes really, go off 💀
• -fextended-identifiers — accept universal character names and extended characters in identifiers. This option is enabled by default for C99 (and later C standard versions) and C++. 🌈
• -fno-canonical-system-headers — when preprocessing, do not shorten system header paths with canonicalization. lowkey a "leave my paths alone" moment 🫶
• -fmax-include-depth=depth — sets the maximum depth of the nested #include. The default is 200.
• -fsearch-include-path[=kind] — look for input files on the #include path, not just the current directory. This is particularly useful with C++20 modules, for which both header units and module interface units need to be compiled directly:

g++ -c -std=c++20 -fmodules -fsearch-include-path bits/stdc++.h bits/std.cc

kind defaults to user, which looks on the #include "..." search path; you can also explicitly specify system for the "#include <...>" search path.

• -ftabstop=width — sets the distance between tab stops. This helps the preprocessor report correct column numbers in warnings or errors, even if tabs appear on the line. If the value is less than 1 or greater than 100, the option is ignored. The default is 8.
• -ftrack-macro-expansion[=level] — tracks locations of tokens across macro expansions. This lets the compiler emit a diagnostic about the current macro expansion stack when a compilation error occurs in a macro expansion. Heads up bestie, using this option makes the preprocessor and the compiler consume more memory. 😭 The level parameter chooses the level of precision of token location tracking, which decreases the memory consumption if necessary. Value 0 of level de-activates this option. Value 1 tracks tokens locations in a degraded mode for the sake of minimal memory overhead — in this mode all tokens resulting from the expansion of an argument of a function-like macro have the same location. Value 2 tracks tokens locations completely. This value is the most memory hungry. When this option is given no argument, the default parameter value is 2. Note that "-ftrack-macro-expansion=2" is activated by default. 🔥
• -fmacro-prefix-map=old=new — when preprocessing files residing in directory old, expand the "__FILE__" and "__BASE_FILE__" macros as if the files resided in directory new instead. This can be used to change an absolute path to a relative path by using . for new, which can result in more reproducible builds that are location independent. This option also affects "__builtin_FILE()" during compilation. See also -ffile-prefix-map and -fcanon-prefix-map. 🧚
• -fexec-charset=charset — sets the execution character set, used for string and character constants. The default is UTF-8. charset can be any encoding supported by the system's "iconv" library routine. ⭐
• -fwide-exec-charset=charset — sets the wide execution character set, used for wide string and character constants. The default is one of UTF-32BE, UTF-32LE, UTF-16BE, or UTF-16LE, whichever corresponds to the width of "wchar_t" and the big-endian or little-endian byte order being used for code generation. As with -fexec-charset, charset can be any encoding supported by the system's "iconv" library routine; however, you will have problems with encodings that do not fit exactly in "wchar_t". 💀
• -finput-charset=charset — sets the input character set, used for translation from the character set of the input file to the source character set used by GCC. The default is UTF-8. charset can be any encoding supported by the system's "iconv" library routine.

If the input character set is UTF-8, warnings about ill-formed code unit sequences are issued if -Winvalid-utf8 is enabled. Otherwise no diagnostics are issued when the input character set matches the execution character set. If they are different, ill-formed code unit sequences result in an error during transcoding to the execution character set.

• -fworking-directory — enables generation of linemarkers in the preprocessor output that let the compiler know the current working directory at the time of preprocessing. When this option is enabled, the preprocessor emits, after the initial linemarker, a second linemarker with the current working directory followed by two slashes. GCC uses this directory, when it's present in the preprocessed input, as the directory emitted as the current working directory in some debugging information formats. This option is implicitly enabled if debugging information is enabled, but this can be inhibited with the negated form -fno-working-directory. If the -P flag is present in the command line, this option has no effect, since no "#line" directives are emitted whatsoever. 🎀
• -A predicate=answer, --assert predicate=answer, --assert=predicate=answer — make an assertion with the predicate predicate and answer answer. This form is preferred to the older form -A predicate(answer), which is still supported, because it does not use shell special characters. Assertions are an obsolete feature of the preprocessor, supported only for compatibility with legacy system headers on some targets. 🙈
• -A -predicate=answer, --assert -predicate=answer, --assert=-predicate=answer — cancel an assertion with the predicate predicate and answer answer.
• -C, --comments — do not discard comments. All comments are passed through to the output file, except for comments in processed directives, which are deleted along with the directive. You should be prepared for side effects when using -C; it causes the preprocessor to treat comments as tokens in their own right. For example, comments appearing at the start of what would be a directive line have the effect of turning that line into an ordinary source line, since the first token on the line is no longer a #. 💅
• -CC, --comments-in-macros — do not discard comments, including during macro expansion. This is like -C, except that comments contained within macros are also passed through to the output file where the macro is expanded. In addition to the side effects of the -C option, the -CC option causes all C++-style comments inside a macro to be converted to C-style comments. This is to prevent later use of that macro from inadvertently commenting out the remainder of the source line. The -CC option is generally used to support lint comments. 👑
• -P, --no-line-commands — inhibit generation of linemarkers in the output from the preprocessor. This might be useful when running the preprocessor on something that is not C code, and will be sent to a program which might be confused by the linemarkers.
• -traditional, --traditional, -traditional-cpp, --traditional-cpp — try to imitate the behavior of pre-standard C preprocessors, as opposed to ISO C preprocessors. Note that GCC does not otherwise attempt to emulate a pre-standard C compiler, and these options are only supported with the -E switch, or when invoking CPP explicitly. ⭐
• -trigraphs, --trigraphs — support ISO C trigraphs. These are three-character sequences, all starting with ??, that are defined by ISO C to stand for single characters. For example, ??/ stands for \, so '??/n' is a character constant for a newline. By default, GCC ignores trigraphs, but in standard-conforming modes it converts them. See the -std and -ansi options. 🌸
• -remap — enable special code to work around file systems which only permit very short file names, such as MS-DOS. it's giving retro 💾
• -H, --trace-includes — print the name of each header file used, in addition to other normal activities. Each name is indented to show how deep in the #include stack it is. Precompiled header files are also printed, even if they are found to be invalid; an invalid precompiled header file is printed with ...x and a valid one with ...! . ✨

Okay bestie, buckle up, we're in the directory-search-and-debug-dump portion of this thing and honestly? It's giving deep lore. 🌸

• -dletters, --dump=letters, --dump letters — this one tells the compiler to make debugging dumps during compilation, exactly as spelled out by letters. Heads up tho: the flags documented right here are only the ones that matter to the preprocessor. Other letters get interpreted by the compiler proper, or they're reserved for future versions of GCC, so they just get silently ignored like a text you left on read. 🙈 And if you specify letters whose behavior conflicts? Yeah no, the result is undefined. Pick a lane. 💀
  • -dM, --dump=M — instead of the normal output, this generates a list of #define directives for all the macros defined during the execution of the preprocessor, predefined macros included. It's literally your cheat code for finding out what's predefined in your version of the preprocessor. Assuming you have no file foo.h, the command

touch foo.h; cpp -dM foo.h

shows all the predefined macros. slay. ✨

• -dD, --dump=D — like -dM, except it outputs both the #define directives and the result of preprocessing. Both kinds of output go to the standard output file. two-for-one, we love to see it. 💖
• -dN, --dump=N — like -dD, but it only emits the macro names, not their expansions. the cliffnotes version, periodt.
• -dI, --dump=I — outputs #include directives in addition to the result of preprocessing.
• -dU, --dump=U — like -dD except only macros that are expanded, or whose definedness is tested in preprocessor directives, get output. The output is delayed until the use or test of the macro, and #undef directives are also output for macros tested but undefined at the time. it's giving patient. 🧚

• -fdebug-cpp — okay this one is only useful for debugging GCC itself, no cap. When used from CPP or with -E, it dumps debugging information about location maps, and every token in the output is preceded by the dump of the map its location belongs to.

When used from GCC without -E, this option has no effect. nothing. zero. 🫥

• -I dir, -iquote dir, -isystem dir, -idirafter dir, --include-directory-after=dir, --include-directory-after dir, --include-directory=dir, --include-directory dir — adds the directory dir to the list of directories to be searched for header files during preprocessing. --include-directory is an alias for -I, while --include-directory-after is an alias for -idirafter. 💅

If dir begins with = or $SYSROOT, then the = or $SYSROOT gets replaced by the sysroot prefix; see --sysroot and -isysroot.

Directories specified with -iquote apply only to the quote form of the directive, #include "file". Directories specified with -I, -isystem, or -idirafter apply to lookup for both the #include "file" and #include <file> directives.

You can specify any number or combination of these options on the command line to search for header files in several directories. The lookup order is as follows:

1. For the quote form of the include directive, the directory of the current file is searched first.
2. For the quote form of the include directive, the directories specified by -iquote options are searched in left-to-right order, as they appear on the command line.
3. Directories specified with -I options are scanned in left-to-right order.
4. Directories specified with -isystem options are scanned in left-to-right order.
5. Standard system directories are scanned.
6. Directories specified with -idirafter options are scanned in left-to-right order.

You can use -I to override a system header file, substituting your own version, since these directories are searched before the standard system header file directories. However, you should NOT use this option to add directories that contain vendor-supplied system header files — use -isystem for that, bestie, I'm begging you. 😭

The -isystem and -idirafter options also mark the directory as a system directory, so it gets the same special treatment that's applied to the standard system directories.

If a standard system include directory, or a directory specified with -isystem, is also specified with -I, the -I option is ignored. The directory is still searched, but as a system directory at its normal position in the system include chain. Why? To ensure that GCC's procedure to fix buggy system headers and the ordering for the #include_next directive are not inadvertently changed. If you really need to change the search order for system directories, use the -nostdinc and/or -isystem options. iykyk. 👑

• -I-, --include-barrier — splits the include path. This option has been deprecated. 💀 Please use -iquote instead for -I directories before the -I-, and remove the -I- option entirely.

Any directories specified with -I options before -I- are searched only for headers requested with #include "file"; they are not searched for #include <file>. If additional directories are specified with -I options after the -I-, those directories are searched for all #include directives.

In addition, -I- inhibits the use of the directory of the current file directory as the first search directory for #include "file". And there is no way to override this effect of -I-. no takebacks, no do-overs. 🙃

• -iprefix prefix, --include-prefix=prefix, --include-prefix prefix — specifies prefix as the prefix for subsequent -iwithprefix options. If the prefix represents a directory, you should include the final /. don't forget the slash, it's the little things. 🎀
• -iwithprefix dir, -iwithprefixbefore dir, --include-with-prefix=prefix, --include-with-prefix prefix, --include-with-prefix-after=prefix, --include-with-prefix-after prefix, --include-with-prefix-before=prefix, --include-with-prefix-before prefix — appends dir to the prefix specified previously with -iprefix, and adds the resulting directory to the include search path. -iwithprefixbefore puts it in the same place -I would; -iwithprefix puts it where -idirafter would.

--include-with-prefix and --include-with-prefix-after are both aliases for -iwithprefix, while --include-with-prefix-before is an alias for -iwithprefixbefore. aliases on aliases, we're so back. 🌈

• -isysroot dir — this option is like the --sysroot option, but it applies only to header files (except for Darwin targets, where it applies to both header files and libraries). See the --sysroot option for more information.
• -imultilib dir — use dir as a subdirectory of the directory containing target-specific C++ headers.
• -imultiarch dir — use dir as a subdirectory of the directory containing architecture-specific C++ headers.
• -nostdinc, --no-standard-includes — do not search the standard system directories for header files. Only the directories explicitly specified with -I, -iquote, -isystem, and/or -idirafter options (and the directory of the current file, if appropriate) are searched. build your own path, main character energy. 👑
• -nostdinc++ — do not search for header files in the C++-specific standard directories, but do still search the other standard directories. (This option is used when building the C++ library.) half a boycott, very demure. 🎀
• --embed-dir=dir, --embed-directory=dir, --embed-directory dir — appends the dir directory to the list of searched directories for the #embed preprocessing directive or the __has_embed macro. There are no default directories for #embed. none. nada. you build the whole list yourself. 🫶

If dir begins with = or $SYSROOT, then the = or $SYSROOT is replaced by the sysroot prefix; see --sysroot and -isysroot.

• -Wcomment, -Wcomments — warns whenever a comment-start sequence /* appears in a /* comment, or whenever a backslash-newline appears in a // comment. This warning is enabled by -Wall. 🚨
• -Wtrigraphs — warns if any trigraphs are encountered that might change the meaning of the program. Trigraphs within comments are not warned about, except those that would form escaped newlines.

This option is implied by -Wall. If -Wall is not given, this option is still enabled unless trigraphs are enabled. To get trigraph conversion without warnings, but get the other -Wall warnings, use -trigraphs -Wall -Wno-trigraphs. yes, that's the combo. write it down. 📝

• -Wundef — warns if an undefined identifier is evaluated in an #if directive. Such identifiers are replaced with zero. zero. nothing. gone. 💀
• -Wexpansion-to-defined — warns whenever defined is encountered in the expansion of a macro (including the case where the macro is expanded by an #if directive). Such usage is not portable. This warning is also enabled by -Wpedantic and -Wextra.
• -Wunused-macros — warns about macros defined in the main file that are unused. A macro counts as used if it is expanded or tested for existence at least once. The preprocessor also warns if the macro has not been used at the time it is redefined or undefined.

Built-in macros, macros defined on the command line, and macros defined in include files are not warned about. exempt. privileged. ✨

Note: if a macro is actually used, but only used in skipped conditional blocks, then the preprocessor reports it as unused. To avoid the warning in such a case, you might improve the scope of the macro's definition by, for example, moving it into the first skipped block. Alternatively, you could provide a dummy use with something like:

#if defined the_macro_causing_the_warning
#endif

• -Wno-endif-labels — do not warn whenever an #else or an #endif are followed by text. This sometimes happens in older programs with code of the form

#if FOO
...
#else FOO
...
#endif FOO

The second and third FOO should be in comments. This warning is on by default.

---

🌸 ENVIRONMENT 🌸

okay bestie so this whole section is about the vibes your shell passes down to CPP. these are the environment variables that change how CPP does its thing 💅 you can use them to say "hey, look for include files here" or "hey, control how dependency output works."

and like, yes, you can also just say where to search with options like -I, and control dependency output with options like -M. those take precedence over environment variables. environment variables take precedence over the configuration of GCC. that's the hierarchy, no cap. 📊

🎀 CPATH, C_INCLUDE_PATH, CPLUS_INCLUDE_PATH, OBJC_INCLUDE_PATH

so each one of these bad boys holds a list of directories, separated by a special character, kinda like PATH does, and CPP goes looking in them for header files. the special character is called PATH_SEPARATOR, and it's target-dependent, decided at GCC build time. for Microsoft Windows-based targets it's a semicolon, and for almost literally every other target it's a colon. ✨

• CPATH — specifies a list of directories to be searched as if they were specified with -I, but after any paths given with -I options on the command line. and this one is used regardless of which language is being preprocessed. she's for everyone 💖
• the remaining three — C_INCLUDE_PATH, CPLUS_INCLUDE_PATH, OBJC_INCLUDE_PATH — only apply when you're preprocessing that particular language. each one specifies a list of directories to be searched as if specified with -isystem, but after any paths given with -isystem options on the command line. language-specific girlies 🦋

and in all of these variables, an empty element tells the compiler to search its current working directory. empty elements can sit at the beginning or the end of a path. for instance, if the value of CPATH is:

:/special/include

then that has the same effect as:

-I. -I/special/include

like, the empty bit in front is lowkey doing the most. iconic. 👑

🧚 DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT

if this variable is set, its value specifies how to output dependencies for Make, based on the non-system header files processed by the compiler. system header files are ignored in the dependency output. bye system headers, we don't see you 🫶

the value of DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT can be just a file name — in which case the Make rules get written to that file, and the target name is guessed from the source file name. or the value can have the form file target, in which case the rules are written to file file using target as the target name.

in other words (and this is the tea ☕), this environment variable is equivalent to combining the options -MM and -MF, with an optional -MT switch too.

💜 SUNPRO_DEPENDENCIES

this variable is the same as DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT (see above 👆), except that system header files are not ignored, so it implies -M rather than -MM. however, the dependence on the main input file is omitted. she's a little different, that's her whole thing 🌈

⭐ SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH

if this variable is set, its value specifies a UNIX timestamp to be used in replacement of the current date and time in the __DATE__ and __TIME__ macros, so that the embedded timestamps become reproducible. reproducible builds girlies rise 🙌

the value of SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH must be a UNIX timestamp, defined as the number of seconds (excluding leap seconds) since 01 Jan 1970 00:00:00, represented in ASCII. it's identical to the output of:

date +%s

on GNU/Linux and other systems that support the %s extension in the date command. 🕰️

the value should be a known timestamp, like the last modification time of the source or package, and it should be set by the build process. don't be out here making up timestamps bestie, that's not the move 💀

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👀 SEE ALSO 👀

go read these, they're the supporting cast and they ate:

• gpl(7)
• gfdl(7)
• fsf-funding(7)
• gcc(1)
• and the Info entries for cpp and gcc. 📚

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📜 COPYRIGHT 📜

Copyright (c) 1987-2026 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. A copy of the license is included in the man page gfdl(7). This manual contains no Invariant Sections. The Front-Cover Texts are (a) (see below), and the Back-Cover Texts are (b) (see below).

(a) The FSF's Front-Cover Text is:

A GNU Manual

(b) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is:

You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU
software.  Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise
funds for GNU development.

bestie if you're out here copying this, read the license first. it's giving legal but make it cute 💅

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and that's a wrap on the whole CPP(1) page, fr fr 🎀 this one's from gcc-16.2.1 and it's dated 2026-08-19 — so if you're reading it in a terminal someday, that's the version and the date it was serving. go forth and preprocess, you absolute icon 👑✨